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Top 10 Ugliest Buildings In England

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Robin Hoods Gardens - This housing complex in London was designed by Alison and Peter Smithson in 1972 and demolished in 2013 after a fierce fight to preserve the building by the English Heritage and Design Council Cabe failed. It was long regarded as ugly. Plans to replace the site include a school and mosque.


Manchester Arndale Tower - Hugh Wilson and Lewis Womersley designed this shopping centre development. The tower was completed in 1979. It was immediately received with derision and is now called one of the ugliest buildings in Europe.


Blackhorse Road Station - This tube station in London opened in 1968 at a historic railway. Cost cuts made it flat and bland, with bathroom tiles for walls, and causes resentment from locals.


Grosvenor Street West - This brick building is next to the Old Union Mill on Sheepcote Street in Birmingham.


Elmers End Station - This Beckenham station serves rail and tram lines.


Trinity Centre Multi-Storey Car Park - Rodney Gordon designed this Brutalist parking garage in Gateshead, England, built in 1967. A concrete rooftop restaurant floated above the massive building. It was demolished in 2010. Long considered an eyesore.


Manchester Business School - Part of a city centre that has a reputation as ugly.


Royal Liverpool Hospital - Holford Associates designed this Hospital in Liverpool, opened in 1978. It is huge and known as ugly. A replacement is due for completion in 2017.


Pimlico Academy - John Bancroft designed this school on Lupus Street in Westminster London, completed in 1970. Complaints were not only about the appearance, but also of uncomfortable extreme temperatures, excessive amount of entrances, and no disabled access.


Mems on Moorefield Road - This area of Moorefield Road in London is near Bruce Grove Railway Station.

Shadow In Perspective Drawing- Art Technique

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Shadow Vanishing Points
Raised Object
Complex Shadows
Tipped Object
Twisted Object
Drawing The Shadow
Shadow is the darkness that results because an object blocks light from hitting another object. This is different than shade.

Shade is the dark part of an object that doesn't receive light. The front of a pitcher, for example, reflects light toward the viewer and the back side is in shade. The pitcher casts a shadow on the ground and wall.

Light travels in a straight line.

If you explode a balloon full of paint where the light source is, the area blocked by the object from getting sprayed by paint is where shadow will be. This makes it easier to figure out what this shadow area is. Just draw straight lines from the light source to the outside edges of the object. Continue that line until it hits the other object.

You need to use the object's same perspective points for the shadow. The cast edge of the object does not change vanishing points. A ball's shadow will cast as an oval, and it will go to the same vanishing points.
But there is something else you need to consider: the light source's vanishing point. This tells you how far back the object's shadow gets cast.


Shadow Vanishing Points




Raised Object

Cut out the lower half of the object and you have a floating object. The only difference in the shadow is now you have more light shining through. Draw light lines to this new lower edge and find where they intersect your existing shadow lines.



Complex Shadows

As you figure out the dimensions of the shadow edges, the important thing to know is if the edge vanishes toward the object vanishing point or toward the light vanishing point. Just remember that if the shadow edge is being cast away from the object, you use the light vanishing point. If it is following the object, you use the object vanishing point.



Tipped Object

What if the second object is not aligned with the first object? The shadow edges that vanish toward the first object's vanishing points change. Their new vanishing point moves some amount toward the new object 2 vanishing point, depending on how much the object is tipped. All other shadow edges use the same vanishing points.



Twisted Object



Drawing The Shadow

Color- Every light has a color to it. The sun is orangish-yellow. In places where the light doesn't hit the object, the color of the object looks different. It will have a complementary tint of color in its shadow. This is why buildings in the sun have a purplish shadow.

Gradient edge- The softness of a shadow's edge depends on three things. First, the type of light source. An ambient light produces soft edges and a hard spot light makes crisp edges. Second, the distance of the cast shadow from object 1. A shadow cast over a long distance will diffuse light at the ends. Shadows will be crisper at parts close to the object. Third, the object. The texture and quality of both objects determine how crisp the shadow gets.

How To Design Buildings To Prevent Break-Ins

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Simple architecture helps stop burglaries and break-ins. You don't need an expensive alarm system to keep you safe. Learn from techniques developed throughout history about fortification and designs that keep enemies away and allow you to defend yourself.

Control Access & Visibility

A house on a well-traveled street should be open and easily seen. Criminals will hesitate if there are lots of witnesses. Fences and bushes only conceal burglars and help them out.

But if your building is somewhere that does not have people walking around all the time, access and visibility should be blocked. Don't let them see what you have in your yard, if your lawn is unkempt, if the snow is undisturbed.

Chain link fences are easily hopped over and they are ugly. Put up a little money for a nice cast iron fence with a jagged top, or solid brick. Put a gate across the driveway. The point is to prevent an intruder from getting in or out, or at least to slow them down.

Clearly Show Private Property

Don't be that guy that is always yelling at people for cutting across their yard. Establish the privacy of your property. Have clear pathways that people should use, provide lighting at those pathways, and use plantings and barriers to keep people away from private areas.

This is important because it is easier for a burglar to gain access to a site that is occasionally accessed by the public. There should be no confusion about where people should be and who should be there.

Be Able To See Everything

Ancient cities typically had tall towers from which they could observe the outlying landscape. You can apply this concept to your house by designing the yards so that everything is visible from the front and back doors. A quick glance out the window or peep hole tells you what is going on.

This should be the case indoors as well. The layout of the building should be simple and easy to navigate, for a variety of reasons as well as security.

Often the main bedroom is considered the refuge where a person will go to be safest. Try to make it as easy as possible to see what is going on from the main bedroom. Install security cameras if needed. Make the bedroom door impenetrable.

Prevent From Getting Inside

Use features to prevent intruders from getting inside. Double-paned windows and safety glass are important for energy savings and disasters as well as security. Ensure all doors are equipped with good locks, not just safety bolts, and that windows are impossible to force open. Make your building a fortress.

Automated lighting and window shades give the impression that someone is home. Consider parking a car outside the garage. But be careful about automatic garage door openers. Thieves often break into cars to open the garage door and thus gain entry to the house.

Use More Light

Lighting up the property at night is an important step for deterring crime. It only takes a couple bright lights to take away a burglar's cloak of darkness, and the money you will spend is not really all that much.

Consider using a interior lighting system that can switch all the lights in the building on at once. That way you won't be the typical victim you see in the movies stumbling in the dark.

Look Like Somebody Is There

Break-ins are less likely if it appears like someone is home. Along with automatic lights and shades, have a huge mailbox to accommodate weeks of mail if you are away on vacation. Keep plantings in your yard that don't grow out of control if not kept up on a regular basis.

Remember that scene in Home Alone when Kevin used cardboard cut-outs of people and loud music to make the robbers think a party was going on? That is not so far-fetched. Why not have a kind of scarecrow home-owner in your yard while you are away? It is easy and effective. You can set a timer to turn on music and lights at random times.

Stay Armed and Ready

Don't underestimate two big Rottweilers. Having pet dogs that attack intruders is one of the best things you can do. Even a small yappy dog can alert you to danger and scare them away.

A good weapon is also necessary. If the law allows it, keep a weapon close by. Keep in mind that you might need to access and use it quickly, but don't make it possible for kids or visitors to get it.

A phone that you can use to call police is of course necessary. Consider also having a loud siren or other ways of deterring intruders.

Security System

Security systems are pretty simple. A magnet attached to a door or window breaks an electrical circuit when the door or window opens. The device sends a signal to switch on a siren or call police. Motion detectors can also do this.

You can do all this yourself. Install motion detectors and magnetic devices attached to a siren or even that will automatically call police. Security cameras can be easy to install as well. A camera wirelessly sends a signal to a recording device that can be viewed from any internet connection. But be careful that this internet connection is password protected!

Masjid Sultan Mosque, Singapore

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Irish architect Denis Santry designed the Sultan Mosque in Kampong Glam, Singapore, completed in 1928. It replaced the mosque next to the palace of Sultan Hussain that was built in 1826.

The Indo-Saracenic Revival style mixes traditional Hindu and Islamic elements with the Gothic and Neo-classical styles popular at the time. Careful distinction is made from Arabic styles. The British imperial building standards and typical layout for sacred structures can be seen particularly inside. But the flair for exotic Eastern aesthetics is dramatically on display as well.

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Actelion Business Center, Alischwil Switzerland

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Herzog & de Meuron designed the business park for Actelion Pharmaceuticals in Alischwil Switzerland, completed in 2010. The 6 floor complex includes an auditorium and restaurant.

Each of the 350 work spaces are stacked around each other as needed for circulation and close communication. A detailed list of programs in the facility are related to each other and this carries over directly into how each space is arranged. The result is a crystal-like form.

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Kauffman Center, Kansas City Missouri

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Moshe Safdie designed the Kauffman Center for the Performing Arts in downtown Kansas City, Missouri.

Safdie is known for Marina Bay Sands and Habitat 67. He started as an apprentice under Louis Kahn but lately his art has become less Modernist and more monumental.

The back of the building faces a busy road and curls up in striated reflective metal. This shell of metal curls make a jagged wave crest and then falls down to the front of the building. The main lobby, Brandmeyer Hall, slopes outward and is stabilized with 27 tensile steel cables. This sheer glazing offers a superior view of the city from the building's elevation position. A front lawn provides a grand entrance to the city through this massive glass porch.

The theme of geometric striations continue inside the lobby with stacked curling floors. The Muriel Kauffman Theatre has 1,800 seats and wood striations that wrap around in dynamic symmetry. The Helzberg Hall has 1,600 seats and feels more intimate with stacks balcony seating along undulating walls.

This project cost $413 million and opened in September 2011.

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The Pantheon: Rome's Architecture Of The Cosmos

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Founded:126 AD
Architect:Unknown
Patron:Marcus Aggripa (63AD-12BC)
Emperor Hadrian (76AD-138AD)
Style:Roman (Hadrian era)
Location:Campus Martius, Rome
The Pantheon united all the gods in one location, and elevated Rome to a heavenly world. Sunlight and proportion were carefully crafted using a symbolism of the earth uniting with the sun.

Similarities with Stonehenge provide insight. The "double pediment" commonly thought to be a design mistake actually had a deeper purpose.



Innovations of Design

Funeral Dome - Domes had previously always been kept small.

It was a challenge to make circular buildings. It was difficult to separate rooms and provide an entrance to a round space. They did't fit well into a city site, and details such as the roof were tricky to figure out. a

There were two kinds of domes before the Pantheon. The Tholos was an underground domed tomb used since Neolithic times. The Treasury of Atreus was constructed around 1250 BC. Concentric slabs of stone were stacked like a beehive to form a pointed dome. The dome in this tomb has an impressive diameter of 27 ft (14.5m).

The other kind of dome was the Tumulus mound. These burial mounds were dug all around the world from the earliest of times and reached all scales of size.

The interior of the Tholos was domed, while the exterior of the Tumulus was domed. In both cases the function was for burial. The Pantheon forever changed this.

The Pantheon revealed the dome shape both in the inside
and on the outside.

Round Temples - Circular temples were often used in Greece. The design language was detailed by Vitruvius. Corinthian columns were freestanding or surrounded a circular wall. They held up a dome with a diameter equal to the height of the columns.

The Pantheon changed this. The dome is much larger in proportion to the columns, forming a sphere that fits entirely inside the space. The Pantheon's columns switch
places with the cella wall, which emphasizes the structure of the interior rather than the exterior space. The roots of this transformation can be seen at Hadrian's Temple of Apollo in Tivoli.

Round temples were typically dedicated to Vesta. Here they offered sacrifices to protect life on earth and the family. Corinthian columns in these temples represent rebirth and youth.

The Pantheon uses the same Corinthian columns. But the Pantheon was not funeral in nature. The dome of the Pantheon stacks in ribs like the Tholos to form a drum, but then a proper concrete dome like that of the common circular temple completes the dome. It is a synthesis of construction techniques.

Trajan's Market - The same people who built the Pantheon probably built the Trajan Markets. "The Markets show that vaulted, brick-faced architecture had become fully accepted and could be used in almost any kind of building. Since they were built just a few years before the Pantheon, they clearly record the kind of design and construction that Hadrian's architects knew well and perhaps even worked on."b

The arch and barrel vault were constructed to a monumental scale, with the same construction technique as the Pantheon. The need for light and air in the Market contributed to the Pantheon's expansive feeling. The openings for shops in the Market became niches for statues to the gods in the Pantheon.

Traditional Greek & New Roman - The first Pantheon was built in 25 BC by general Marcus Aggripa. It was called Pan"all" - Theos"gods", meaning a temple to "all the gods". Little is known about this original building, except that it contained statues of gods and probably was south facing. It probably was a traditional round temple.

The new Pantheon was completed about 128 AD by Emperor Hadrian with a radical new design. As a student of architecture himself, Hadrian gathered ideas during his travels and studies. "Architecture was his particular passion. A massive building program would please the citizens, and it would also please him.... Seated under the heavenly dome, he would be the son of a god, surrounded by the heavens."c

He attached a traditional Greek temple entrance to a domed rotunda. Such a thing had never been done. The clash of two totally separate things certainly must have riled the conservative sensibilities of Rome. The architect Apollodoros was one great critic of Hadrian (who Hadrian later put to death.)

At 142 ft diameter (43m), the dome is the largest unreinforced masonry dome in the world. The walls are 19 ft thick and distribute the great weight on 3 tiers of arches. And it was built in only 10 years.



Site Relationships

The Campus Martius was the holy center for Rome. The Pantheon's location and orientation related to buildings around it. North was the Mausoleum of Augustus, and beyond that the obelisk of Ramesses II which was moved there from the Circus Maximus in 1589.

The sun reaches closest to the center of the Pantheon on the summer solstice. The setting summer solstice sun forms an axis of relationships:



The mausoleum of Hadrian intersects the obelisk of Ramses II from the sun temple in Heliopolis in front of the Pantheon. One would see from the Pantheon the summer solstice sun set behind the mausoleum of Hadrian. The axis continues to the column of Trajan, the Colosseum, and the Lateran obelisk of Karnak, which is the largest obelisk in the world and was moved there in the 16th century. The axis continues on to the Monte del Grano burial site which bears striking resemblance to the Pantheon.

This 1641 map of Rome shows this axis terminating at the obelisk of Heliopolis in front of St. Peter's, though this orientation is skewed and not actually the case.

The ara pacisMuseum of Peace originally stood due north, past the obelisk in front of the Pantheon. At 30m heigh, the obelisk would have cast a shadow that touched the Museum on the equinox.

The Pantheon is therefore a unifying element in the layout of Rome. It suggests Hadrian's resurrection with the sun. A monument to peace in an area originally dedicated to Mars suggests a turning of purpose, a purpose which involved the Pantheon and the emperor's apotheosis.



Sacred Proportions of the Sun

The name "Pantheon" had a deeper meaning according to ancient historians":
"It has this name, perhaps because it received among the images which decorated it the statues of many gods, including Mars and Venus; but my own opinion of the name is that, because of its vaulted roof, it resembles the heavens."e
Finding The Form - The dome and its symbolism is what's important. The dome maps a relationship of earth and man to heaven. This is why they went to such great effort to make a solid concrete ceiling.

The floor tiles give an overall layout for how this done- a circle inside a square. The circle represents the celestial and the square the earthly. The form of the Pantheon is derived from the circle and square in plan and section view.

The Pantheon's design begins with a square subdivided into a grid. Certain points of the grid intersect circles.


These intersection points help a designer form a circle from rectilinear lines. Curves are rendered in much the same way by modern computers using rectilinear perspective.



If we take these circles and arrange them into overlapping quadrants, we render a complex star pattern. The intersections of circles form an 18 pointed star, which divides the Pantheon into 18-part quadrants. These intersection points also render a five-pointed star. These stars give us the over-all dimensions for the Greek entrance pronaos.



The section view of the Pantheon likewise starts out with a subdivided grid. A rectangular form derives from fairly simple geometric subdivisions.



Apply the same circles and stars in section view, and we find that the intersection points bring the rectilinear form together with curves. Overlap the circles at the top to find the dimensions of the beehive drum around the outside of the dome and the oculus.

The Bi Disc in China used the same design method in 2-dimensions. Concenric circles reconciled with a square to uncover sacred dimensions. "It is found that these objects testify to... the notion of a covering sky (gaitian) that revolves around a central axis, the cycle of the Ten Suns, and the use of an early form of the carpenter's square."f

Movement Of The Sun - We know the summer equinox determined the location of the Pantheon. It also has a lot to do with the Pantheon's form and function.

Why does the Pantheon face north? Temples always face east or west, sometimes south, never north. Buildings in general should not face north. The northern entrance makes the Pantheon feel cold, dark, and harder to enjoy.

Well, that was on purpose. The northern axis respects the Mausoleum of Augustus, as we discussed. It also dramatizes the entrance into sunlight and the building's symbolic function as a time keeper. The hemicyclium was a necessary device in any city to tell the days and hours. The Pantheon took on this role- symbolically. It makes symbolic connections through time.

At the autumn equinox, the light of the oculus reaches the upper hemisphere of the coffered dome. At the winter solstice it reaches its height. At spring equinox it touches the base of the dome and shines through the grill above the front door. At the summer solstice it is totally on the floor. g

The important date is April 21, the anniversary of Rome's founding. This is when the front entrance is totally illuminated, when the sun is at high noon.



Three of the niches in the walls get illuminated in the course of the sun. Just like at Abu Simbel, only three of the statues of the gods receive light, each once a year.

The sun shines through the grill above the the door at noon at the spring equinox. The light filters through to the front entrance and invites the visitor to pass through the dark doors to a heavenly splendor inside. An aperture can also be seen above the entrance to the Treasury of Atreus.

A veil of separation is frequently used in temples to give visitors a murky glimpse or quick communication with deity inside.

The dimensions of the oculus, door, and grill were carefully proportioned to make these events on these dates stand out.


The appearance of a comet at Julius Caeser's funeral was another date commemorated by the Pantheon. "But if we take observations through the oculus on the supposed dates of the sighting of Caesar's comet in 44 BC- within the period of 20-30 July... then we find that the last part of the sky to be visible through the oculus just before sunrise is that band of sky in which the comet may have been placed."h

Domus Aurea Palace - The octagonal room at Nero's palace has a domed ceiling with a large oculus. Built in the years before the Pantheon, it provided a precedent for solar markings of important dates. The noon suns hits directly on the room's entrance. The travel of the sun revolves around October 13, the date of Nero's accession as emperor. g And the solar solstice and equinoxes are marked.

The visitor is able to find his place on earth and in a cosmic order. The architecture is a device for mapping relevance of date and time.

The floor of the Pantheon swells upward at the center to visually emphasize the horizon break in the celestial sphere, a similar design device as that used at the Parthenon. Materials were carefully fashioned, such as the marble sheathing on the interior which was attached to the brick with hidden bronze clamps. It shimmers seamlessly in the sun to give the effect of an unbroken heavenly surface.




Mistake In The Pediment Construction?



The pediment on the Greek pronaos is lower than the pediment on the Rotunda. It appears that the pronaos was built 13.5ft (4m) too short and couldn't reach where it was supposed to meet the main building. Archeologists universally blame this on a flaw in construction. Maybe the columns were too high for what the stone could support.

First, consider the design of this front porch. The columns are unfluted Egyptian gray granite. One of the purposes of fluting is to make the columns appear thinner than they really are. If the columns needed to be beefed up to reach taller heights, the builder could have simply made them wider and added fluting.

The roof is sheathed in bronze and has imitation barrel vaulted ceilings. The builders could have used a lighter roofing material. Clearly, structural overload was not the problem. And if it was a mistake, why did they leave behind evidence of the mistake? They could have easily chiseled away the pediment outline from the Rotunda.

The double pediment was not a mistake.

As we already discussed, the overall dimensions of the front pronaos was determined by the circular and rectilinear grids for the overall form. It is united as part of the overall form. A front view with the same circles, stars, and intersection points reveal how the pediments fit in to the overall design. The pentagram star unifies both pediments with the columns, rotunda, and dome drum. The existing columns fit perfectly with the Pantheon's geometric design.

The pentagram determines the slope of the pediment, which explains why the triangle is steeper than what was typical for temples.


The base of the upper pediment is at the center of the building's design composition. It is here that a bronze eagle was originally placed on the lower pediment, with spread wings and a wreath held in the beak.i This point of overlap of the pediments is the focal point of the entire building.

The upper pediment rises 100ft to its tip at the base of the dome, which is the same height as the obelisk in front of the Pantheon (30m). The lower pediment rises 84 ft, the same height as the obelisk in front of St. Peter's Basillica g, which map-makers skewed to appear in axis with the Pantheon.



Similarities To Stonehenge

The dimensions of Pantheon fit perfectly with Stonehenge. If we take Stonehenge at roughly half scale and overlay it on the Pantheon, we see Stonehenge's trench and banks perfectly align with the walls of Pantheon.


The Aubrey holes align with the rotunda's columns. The Aubrey holes contained some of the first features built at Stonehenge. They likely contained posts which suspended some kind of firmament over the site or held blue stones. k The circle's diameter of 282 ft is half the diameter of the Pantheon dome (142 ft).

The outer bluestones align with the outside circumference of the oculus, and the Trilithon horseshoe aligns with the inside circumference of the oculus.

Did Stonehenge serve a similar solar function as the Pantheon? We know that Stonehenge tracked equinoxes, solstices, and other time markers. We see similarities in its religious function to Pantheon and other temples as a procession through states of holiness and cosmic rings. It appears two sites had very similar functions.

Considering the Trilithon stone arrangement the moonrise, moonset, sunrise, and sunset at winter and summer solstice, perhaps the Pantheon's oculus has a similar function. Or maybe the proportions on the two sites were simply derived using similar geometry.



Later Architects Influenced

Brunelleschi - Filippo Brunellesci designed the dome for the Florence cathedral in 1420. The original design by Neri had an oculus at the top like the Pantheon. Brunellesci did away with the oculus, but used the Pantheon as a model for the structure. He used brick instead of concrete because the original formula had been forgotten and wooden forms for concrete would be impractical at such a great height. He used a double shell of marble and sandstone to keep the weight down.
Michelangelo & Brunellesci - The design for the dome at St. Peters was inspired by the Pantheon in much the same way, except that Bramante's plan was supported by four piers instead of a continuous wall. The geometry of the St. Peter's dome became more complex with four smaller domes and a grid of columns and piers.

Michelangelo used similar geometric methods of incorporating curves and rectilinear proportions, and he took it further with St. Peters. He also converged very different design elements in much the same spirit as the Pantheon. This became a favorite tactic of the Baroque movement, as design languages frequently became mixed and matched.


Burial sites - Michelangelo and others styled burial sites after the Pantheon. Despite Hadrian's attempt to separate the dome from the tomb, the Pantheon came to be popularly associated with burial, well into the 1800s.



Drawings & Citations

Floor planRoof planSectionCross section
Front elevationPronaos sectionSection detailInterior elevation
ConstructionInterior perspectiveInterior perspectiveSite perspective
Front perspectivePronaos perspectivePronaos perspectiveFront perspective




  • ^See “The Pantheon: Design, Meaning, and Progeny” by William Lloyd MacDonald Harvard University Press, 2002: p.44

  • ^“The Pantheon: Design, Meaning, and Progeny” by William Lloyd MacDonald Harvard University Press, 2002: p.57

  • ^“The Pantheon” by Lesley A. DuTemple Twenty-First Century Books, 2003: p.15

  • ^Roman History by Cassius Dio, Book LIII, Ch. 27,v.2, in Loeb Classical Library edition, 1917 vol. VI

  • ^"The Original Significance of Bi Disks: insights based on Liangzhu Jade Bi with incised symbolic motifs", by Shu-P'Ing, Teng, Journal of East Asian Archaeology Volume 2, Numbers 1-2, 2000 , pp. 165-194(30)

  • ^ See "The role of the sun in the Pantheon’s design and meaning", by Robert Hannah, Giulio Magli, Cornell University Library, 2009

  • ^ See "The role of the sun in the Pantheon’s design and meaning", by Robert Hannah, Giulio Magli, Cornell University Library, 2009 p.13

  • ^ See "Pantheon", by Mark Cartwright , Ancient History Encyclopedia, 2013 www.ancient.eu.com

  • ^ See "St. Peter's Basilica", by Wikipedia , May 2014

  • ^ See Parker Pearson, Mike; Julian Richards and Mike Pitts (9 October 2008). "Stonehenge 'older than believed'", May 2014


  • © Benjamin Blankenbehler

    Berliner Philharmoniker, Berlin Germany

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    Hans Scharoun designed the Philharmonic concert hall in Berlin, Germany. It was completed in 1963 and replaced the 1882 concert hall built by Franz Schwechten. The main music hall can seat 2,500 and a smaller hall can seat 1,200. The stage is placed at the center and seating is terraced around it. The exterior is a strait golden box but the roof line curves in wavy patterns that match the organic ceilings inside.

    The metal exterior looks industrial but the gold color makes it stand out.

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    Palenque: Ritual Architecture Of Ancient Mayans

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    Founded:226 BC
    Architect:Various
    Patron:K'inich Janaab' Pakal (603-683 AD)
    Style:Late Classic Mayan
    Location:Chiapas, Mexico
    In 652 AD, Pacal the Great began a massive construction program at a Mayan city near the modern-day city Palenque in Mexico. Topography and solar alignments were important for rituals in this city center's temples.

    Rituals and natural cycles guided these people's lives and leave behind clues in stone. A thriving population of 6,200 once relied on these temples to connect them to the heavens and their ancestors. a



    Values In Design

    Validation Of Kingship
    Palenque's rival Calakmul had invaded the city in 611 and left the proud Mayan state in ruins. The royalty had been killed off. The following days were dark and chaotic. "Lost is the divine lady," an inscription laments, "Lost is the lord."b

    Pacal rose to power against all odds. His grandfather Janaab Pakal had become leader two years earlier but was never officially crowned. He couldn't demonstrate that he was a direct descendant of Akhal Mo' Naab, the great king from 90 years earlier. But political brokering by Pacal's mother made Pacal king at the young age of 12.
    From the ashes rose a glorious civilization, as Pacal embarked on a building campaign in 652 that would briefly make the city greater than anyone could imagine. An alliance with nearby Tikal would lead to the defeat of six enemy kings.

    How did Pacal unite his people? He launched a building campaign brought the people together. It invigorated religious fervor and made Pacal leader for their salvation. People fall behind a leader who constructs their spiritual dominance on earth.

    The temples and tower were lifted up on platforms so they could be seen throughout the land, visual landmarks for way-finding. Public plazas and circulation paths were established that brought clarity to people's daily routine. They were wrought in stone, permanent, everlasting. Great tablets were inscribed on Pacal's burial temple with reminders for everybody that his lineage is in fact royal.

    Unite City Composition

    The Palace was the political center of the state. This 310 ft by 260 ft complex sits on a terraced pyramid 40 ft high. With entrances on the north and west end, it sits prominently in the main circulation path of the city.

    It is the center of everything. As one approaches the town from the north, the Palace rises like a monolith, with the Temple of Inscriptions terminating the path behind it. Many coats of paint were found on its walls c, suggesting that it acted like a sort of billboard, a massive advertisement space for the kings.

    Groups of buildings in the city were arranged according to the Palace. Buildings C, B, and E of the Palace were the first constructions at the site d, from 652-667 AD. The Temple of Inscriptions was built in 682 catercorner to Building E. The Cross Group was built in 692 AD across the stream from Building B. The North Group was built in 700 AD near Building C, completing the compositional pivot toward an east-west axis.

    Building C, B, and E were formally arranged like spokes in a wheel. They radiate according to outlying topography. Clumps of buildings were then built in this topography and effaced the Palace buildings. The Palace is thus the urban core of the entire city.

    The radiating spokes were contained atop a rectangular pyramid. A rectangular frame of buildings were then built to emphasize this rectangular form in a circular arrangement. Why?

    The utopian circular city plan is as old as time. From ancient Mesopotamia e to modern Garden Cities, the circular city has always been recognized as a superior method of arranging the city with a dominant center.

    Yet while city planning and topography are easier to design with the circle, building structures themselves are much easier to deal with if rectangular. The Pantheon in Rome achieves a rectangular grid arrangement outside a formal circle in much the same way as the Palenque Palace.



    Funerary Procession To The Heavens

    Pacal The Great was buried in the Temple of Inscriptions. The fact that he was buried with a jade cube and sphere in his hands f suggests that the reconciliation of circle and rectangle was much more important than just as a city-planning device.

    The buildings at Palenque are similar to each other. Pyramid steps lead up to a wall of broad columns and entrances. Corbel arches hold up mansard roofs and roofcombs, all very typical to Mayan architecture. One proceeds through two spaces of corbel arches, and then a sacred inner space is in the second arch.

    Tablets on the building exterior advertise the significance of the site, while tablets in the inner spaces indicate the sacredness of the building's meaning.



    The Temple of Inscriptions changes this in a dramatic way. Only two rows of space are to be found inside. A hidden passageway in the second space leads down sets of stairs to Pacal's burial chamber, which is just below ground level. Pacal's body during his funeral proceeds up stairs, through sacred layers of space, and then down stairs into a sacred telestial space.


    Each of the 69 steps up the pyramid symbolize a year in Pacal's reign in life. The 9 levels of steps represent the 9 levels of hell he must traverse in the afterlife.

    The 13ft by 8 ft stucco tablets on the temple's exterior reinforce Pacal's legitimacy to the throne and divine guidance as king. Tablets inside the temple prophesy of Palenque's role in the history of the world. Finally, the tablet buried with Pacal portrays his entering the paradise of the afterlife using the terestrial Tree of Life.

    A psychoduct passage from the tomb back out to the exterior tablets suggest an umbilical cord g between Pacal and his divine ancestors. This "umbilical cord" performs the same function as the Tree of Life, which is to connect the king with his ancestors, his subterranean tomb with the heights of heaven. h The pyramid is thus at the same time a cave to the underworld and ladder to the sky, a cyclical process.

    And it thus ties together Pacal's entrance to the afterlife with the fate of Palenque.




    Ritual Procession For The Living

    The Temple of Inscriptions is a ritual center for the dead. The Palace is a ritual center for the living, and the two buildings are intrinsically intertwined.

    The pinwheel composition of the Palace is only a slight variation from the cross-form of the Tree of Life that is so prominent around Palenque. The Tree of Life forms the Palace in plan view, and the Tower soars up into the sky at the center.



    One proceeds through the Palace in much the same way as the Temple of Inscriptions. A public plaza leads to an arduous climb up pyramid stairs. The complex is fenced off from the public with its exterior of buildings. Semi-public spaces proceed to private spaces as one moves up more flights of stairs. The size of spaces scales down, corridors narrow, as one moves up and inward.

    Three small openings in the floor lead through narrow passages down to three underground chambers, which mirror the three sacred chambers of the temples. This underground space is a "cosmological underworld" with terestrial symbols of the world between heaven and hell. i Illustrations show initiates passing through the earth and through the sky, with representations of Venus and other gods along the way.

    The architecture provides a setting for the ritualistic activities Mayans performed. "Maya architecture does function as backdrop, with public iconography framing repeated public ritual. We can also go a step further, for the architecture confirms ritual and makes it present and living even when it is not being performed."j

    The benches in these underground rooms suggest the rituals involved sitting or lying down, perhaps to represent the dead body. After all rituals were completed, the initiate emerged at the south end of the Palace, facing the bright summer solstice sun directly above the Temple of Inscriptions. This was a final reminder that Pacal's passage in the afterlife was the progenitor for all others.

    Each building of the Palace performed an important part in this procession. House E was like the temple atop the Temple of Inscriptions, higher than the other buildings. It was the throne room for Pacal and initiated a royal connection with his ancestors, as their thrones showed up later in the subterranean passageways. House E had the name White Skin House.

    Timeline

    431 ADK'uk Balam is first ruler "ajaw" of Palenque
    599 Calakmul invades Palenque
    615Pakal takes throne following period of no king
    683K'inich Kan B'alam takes throne after Paka's death, continues constructions
    711Tonina invades Palenque, captures king K'inich K'an Joy Chitan II
    800Site eventually abandoned
    1567Discovered by Missionary Pedro Lorenzo de la Nada who names the site Palenque
    1773Exploration & surveys made of Palenque
    1948Alberto Ruz Luhuiller discovers Pakal's tomb


    Site: Solar Alignments




    The tower of the Palace anchors the pinwheel arrangement and signifies ascension into the heavens. It likely was used as a podium for leaders to address crowds on the plaza. The most important function of the tower, however, was as an observation deck to view the winter solstice sun setting behind the Temple of Inscriptions.k

    The solstices were important dates in this agricultural society. They defined work schedules and livelihoods. The birth, death, and succession of the king similarly was a cyclical process that defined their lives. When one king died the next naturally took his place, just as the next Spring season of corn replaces the old. The king was deified as the "sun" that made all this organization happen.

    The journey of the sun on the summer solstice crosses each of the exterior panels of the rulers on the Temple of Inscriptions, and finally sets with an alignment of the temple and Pakal's tomb below.o The window slits in the walls show the sun's movement along this process.

    Pakal's son K'inich Kan B'alam II was coronated on the summer solstice of 641.l The inner sanctuary of the Temple of the Foliated Cross is dramatically illuminated on the summer solstice with a tablet that records this enthronement.mVarious other cosmological events are involved in Palenque's design. B'alam's dedication of the Cross Temple in 690 AD coincides with the alignment of Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the Moon.n

    The Temple of the Sun has complex solar arrangements in its design and orientation to the Temple of Inscriptions.



    Similar Buildings

    The use of hierophany to commemorate and deify royal kingship is a noted quality of the Pantheon in Rome. Sunlight shines through an oculus in a special way on the solstices, the founding of Rome, and on the anniversary of Julius Cesaer's coronation.

    The similarities of the Pantheon in Stonehenge and the Pantheon in deriving proportions from the sun also demonstrate the same similarities to Mayan art. The famous Mayan calendar fits with the proportions of a circle divided into 16 parts.

    The reconciliation of the circle and the rectangular grid that gives these proportions of concentric rings happen to align for the Pantheon, Stonehenge, and Palenque.

    Early explorers of Palenque observed other remarkable similarities to Roman architecture. The cement used in Palenque's masonry was found to be "hard as the best seen in the remains of Roman baths and cisterns."p The sophisticated aqueducts at Palenque are the first examples of pressurized piping in the Americas. Palenque's emphasis on water and bathing is similar to Rome's. Also, the ritualistic game at the Mayan ball court is like the Roman gladiator blood sport.

    Based on such observations, explorers theorized that Romans or Phœnicians were involved in the construction of Palenque. q

    The Mayan use of the trefoil arch at Palenque is similar to the Christian foiled arch, which uses three leaves to symbolize the Trinity.

    The cross motif was another example that naturally stood out to Christian explorers.

    The cross at Palenque is the tree of life between the underworld and heavens. It is similar to many ancient theologies. Palenque's cross has a serpent underneath, twisting branches on either side, a celestial bird capping the top, and gods flanked on either side.

    The Buddhist Bodhi Tree has these same elements at the Prambanan Temple. Two cheribs flank the tree with twisting branches on either side, a cap atop, and celestial birds above.



    The tower at the Palace of Palenque is a very typical tower design. The Pharos of Alexanderia is the first such tower that we know of. Archeologists portray the Pharos with the same elements as the Palenque tower. Three tiers get progressively smaller atop a wide pedestal base. A lantern and capped roof sit atop.





    See also:Architectural Survey of the Palace
    Solar analysis of Temple of the Sun



    Citations:


  • ^See “Palenque Prized for Unlocking Maya Mysteries” by Kenneth Garrett www.nationalgeographic.com, accessed 2014

  • ^See “The Ancient American World” by William Leonard Fash, Mary E. Lyons Oxford University Press, 2005: p.54

  • ^See “The Saturday Magazine” Volumes 20-21 by J. W. Parker 1842, p.170

  • ^For a chronology of the Palace construction, see “Architectural Survey, Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico, The Palace” by George F. Andrews University of Oregon, p. 142

  • ^See “The Ancient Mesopotamian City” by Marc Van De Mieroop Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 235

  • ^See “The Cydonia Codex: Reflections from Mars” by George J. Haas, William R. Saunders Frog Books, 2005, p. 177

  • ^See “The Archaeology Coursebook: An Introduction to Themes, Sites, Methods and Skills” by Jim Grant, Sam Gorin, Neil Fleming Routledge, 2008, p. 136

  • ^See “Red Medicine: Traditional Indigenous Rites of Birthing and Healing” by Patrisia Gonzales University of Arizona Press, 2012, p. 127

  • ^See “Space and Sculpture in the Classic Maya City” by Alexander Parmington Cambridge University Press, 2011 , p. 141

  • ^“Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, Dumbarton Oaks, Cambridge University Press, 2011 , p. 192

  • ^See “Sacred Places Around the World: 108 Destinations” by Brad Olsen CCC Publishing, 2004, p. 168

  • ^See “The Ancient Maya” by Robert J. Sharer Stanford University Press, 2006, p. 455

  • ^See “Explorer's Guide Mexico's Aztec & Maya Empires (Explorer's Complete)” by Zain Deane he Countryman Press, 2011, p. 115

  • ^See “Maya civilization” by Canadian Museum of History http://www.historymuseum.ca retrieved 2014

  • ^See “Proceedings of the Tercera Mesa Redonda de Palenque, June 11-18, 1978, Palenque: a conference on the art, hieroglyphics, and historic approaches of the late classic Maya, Part 4” Pre-Columbian Art-Herald Printers, 1979, p. 174

  • ^“Ancient America, in Notes on American Archaeology” by John D. Baldwin Harper & brothers, 1872, p. 99

  • ^See for example “The Prehistoric World or Vanished Races” by E. A. ALLEN NASHVILLE: CENTRAL PUBLISHING HOUSE, 1885.

  • Arctic Cathedral, Tromsø Norway

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    Jan Inge Hovig designed the Tromsdalen or Tromsøysund kirke in Troms county, Norway, also known as Arctic Cathedral. It was completed in 1965 and a Modernist stained glass window added in 1972. A 2940 pipe organ was added in 2005.

    Stacked triangular sections allow slits of light to peer through, and the cross form transects each wall as a destination point at the very end. The concrete exterior changes character with the sunlight and weather, appearing cold in the winter and bright in the summer. Wood and chandelier lighting soften the interior.

    There is a striking similarity to the Sydney Opera House, though the Opera was built later in 1973.

    More Info, More Info










    Scott Residence, Saratoga California

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    Julia Morgan designed this early 20th century villa in Saratoga, California. Though Morgan (1872–1957) enthusiastically pursued the Arts and Crafts movement, she is best known for Mediterranean Revivalist homes like this one, and the Hearst Castle.

    This residence for a railroad lawyer uses a symmetry typical for Morgan. A grand north-facing ballroom separates an east and west wing. Work spaces are found on the east and living spaces on the west.

    Julia Morgan is the first AIA Gold Medal recipient. In a profession dominated by men, she fought biases and accomplished long-lasting works of art.

    Review: "The Death and Life of the Great American City" By Jane Jacobs

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    In 1961, the Modernist movement which had long been theoretical and dormant in America’s architecture began to manifest in our cities. Europe’s Modernist architecture blossomed after World War 2 as an optimistic, thriving economy emerged and as people craved a new modern lifestyle.

    America valued pragmatism and individuality. New technology and engineering possibilities fulfilled the dream of owning a home and car for each American family. American families abandoned the cities and moved out to the suburbs.

    Jane Jacobs moved from a small town to New York City as Modernism was gaining steam, and she wrote about her experience. Jacobs said that her jobs in the working district “gave me more of a notion of what was going on in the city.” As the modernists starting influencing how cities were planned, Jacobs met them with contempt and became outspoken an critic.


    Jacobs attacked New York City’s Planning Commission led by Robert Moses in The Death and Life of the Great American City. Devoid of theoretical training or higher education, Jacobs wrote from a city-dweller’s perspective. She painted a picture of what an alternative to Modernism could like like but did not outline how to implement this ideal.

    A major pitfall of Jacobs is that she fails to suggest how politicians and those who control real estate could be influenced or forced to move toward her ideal. Jacobs does point out that politicians want to appease dense neighborhoods that hold more votes and cities thus control the purse strings. And Jacobs suggests that such communities should be activists in order to prevent the schemes of modernists like Moses. But beyond this there is no plan for motivating the community she wishes for.

    After the book was published, Moses sought for an expressway that would dig through Jacobs' neighborhood in the Village. Jacobs led a successful opposition rally that led to her arrest.

    Jacobs’ other published works focus on economics and the city’s role in world economies, so it is conspicuous that she does not suggest how economy might be used as a weapon for implementing her vision. Rather than lead a crusade, Jacobs painted a vision which she assumed was practical and feasible for the greater economic good and health of the nation. It became up to the politicians and real estate people to figure out how to implement it.



    Jacobs begins with scathing disapproval for Modernism and its hollow promises. Modernism’s failure in the city could be seen in urban renewal. She claimed that urban renewal policies destroyed communities and created isolated, unnatural urban spaces. While Modernist planners thought deductively, Jacobs was consistently inductive in her logic and reasoning. In the search for attractive spaces, she said, “Handsome is as handsome does.”

    The know-it-all Modernists were not more clever than simple city dwellers. Using models of successful Urbanism, like Greenwich Village, and by pointing out how certain conditions have been successful, she makes a strong case for her ideal city. She goes on to show that urban renewal and other Modernist debacles hurt the economy and health of the occupants by sacrificing these conditions.

    As she turned her back to what was popularly called the wave of the future, Jacobs presented herself as a traditionalist but not as a conservative. She valued tradition and the conservative family, but she was not threatened by international influence, from the Modernism of Europe. Rather, she recognized that America’s ideals and pragmatic solutions for success needed to change as society expanded at a quicker pace and new technologies shaped our future. She said that the greatest “threat to the security of our tradition, I believe, lies at home. It is the current fear of radical ideas and of people who propound them.” She sought a more sophisticated liberalism through dichotomy and challenged popular visions of the future.

    Though she had no formal training, Jacobs successfully authored several attacks on the ideas of many well-established authorities. These attacks consistently championed the city and promoted a denser, more vibrant urban community.

    In The Economy of Cities, Jacobs challenged the idea that agriculture precedes the city. She convincingly asserted that the city is actually the root of a region’s economic growth, not agriculture. She challenged the fundamental beliefs of some of the greatest economists in Cities and the Wealth of Nations as she suggested we should consider the city first and the nation-states second in macro-economics.



    One of Jacobs’ most dominant themes in The Death and Life of Great American Cities is the benefits of mixed-use architecture. In a diverse community of people there is more learning to be had. One culture can learn from another culture, one industry from another industry, a higher level of income from a lower level of income. She loved meeting strangers on the street and doesn’t find any danger in such a public environment.

    Jacobs harshly criticizes the separation of uses in the city. She advocates mixed districts with various industries and people of various levels of income. Blocks should be smaller and streets shorter so that people cross paths more. There should be no blank walls and no cars, with which people isolate themselves from others.

    A larger police force doesn’t keep people safe. Safety comes by the observation of “public actors,” store-keepers, onlookers, vigilant neighbors. To demonstrate this, Jacobs points out that larger parks experience more crime. If a park can sustain itself with its own activities, when people can get lost in it and see all the way across to the other side, if there are always people there because of the mixed-use environment, there will be less incentive and more vigilance from the community to prevent for crime.

    Jacobs said we crave a more interesting and bizarre atmosphere. Projects that segregate occupants by income in homogeneous cores lend towards more crime and boring communities. In her book System of Survival she narrows down two “moral syndromes” of people: the commercial (business owners, farmers, scientists) and the guardian (government, charities, religions.) These two moral syndromes should be kept separate but should be invariably balanced in our spaces and everyday lives in a great variety. When the two are combined, inefficient entities result, like mafia or Communism. When there is not a great enough variety, one becomes too dominant and takes away the freedoms of the people.

    The street should be considered as a positive space in the city because that’s where people interact while buildings are in the background. As various building types are situated in chaotic and unexpected places, the positive space becomes more interesting and healthier. The neighborhood, says Jacobs, is a sentimental idea. It can be defined in three ways: the city as a whole, a street or block, or a district. This displays a variety of social extensions which are reduced by the suburbs. In the gilded age of rising income, Jacobs resents that people flee from this diversity.

    She goes on to address gentrification, when urban development makes an old neighborhood too expensive for the old population to keep on living in, as a “self-destruction of diversity” which must be overcome. Jacobs only paints the picture and leaves it up to the reader to figure out how to overcome such obstacles.

    Jacobs’ second major theme is resentment that the government tears down old neighborhoods for new idealized projects. These projects stifle diversity and clear away the established history and culture of the city. New buildings should be mixed with old ones, she says. The new idealized projects are some of the worst construct of the “car people” designers, and promote further separation from other human beings and more dependence on the automobile. By inserting new buildings “among old ones to knit up holes and tatters in a city neighborhood so that the mending is all but invisible,” a community can actually un-slum itself. With a sufficiently dense population of people, many of which are residents, a city can only be un-slummed by such means.

    The city should be considered as a lattice, not a tree, Jacobs says. The interconnections make it impossible to simply transplant a whole major part of it.

    “Nothing is static,” observes Jacobs. It is perhaps valuable to consider ourselves as only parts of this lattice-work and not be presumptuous enough to think that we can hold back a deluge of water as we try to implement an ideal that denies simple human nature and methods of progress.

    A city excels by the coming together of different views. A city that is connected to other cities, whose occupants have access to cultures that excel each in their own way, these are the cities that lead economically, socially, and politically. Jacob’s eye for the good ol’ days combined her fearless consideration of liberal ideas makes her a suitable envisioner of such an environment. The circumstances behind her ideas should be a reminder of the folly that arises in times of optimism, and we should continue to be vigilant and allow those solutions that actually work, even if we love to complain about them.

    See: New York Times Review
    See: Summary


    ^Image by claugeo27 on flickr

    Reichstag, Berlin Germany

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    Norman Foster designed the new dome for the Reichstag parliament building in Berlin, completed in 1999. As a symbol for the reunification of Germany after WW2, the dome is transparent and allows the people to walk above the government.

    Similar to Foster's London City Hall, a swirling staircase rises inside a full glass dome structure. Hegel's philosophy of social development can be seen as the people are restrained by the envelope of the dome yet are above the rule of law which is developed inside. Concave mirrors direct natural sunlight from the dome and into a skylight to illuminate the parliament chamber below.

    Paul Wallot designed the original Reichstag in 1894. It famously caught fire in 1933 and was used as a symbol of the fight against Communism. It was badly damaged in 1945, and after the war Modernist Paul Baumgarten stripped the building of all elegance and decoration. But it was later built back up for the Reunification of Germany ceremony in 1990.

    Video: Norman Foster presents Architecture Of The Common Ground
    Essay: Reichstag Dome As Subversion Of Architectural Symbols
    Book









    Developing A Design Method From The Genesis Creation

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    Creation stories provide a framework for design. The question is not how the universe came to be, but how the universe leads to design.

    By humanizing nature we can figure out how to design for ourselves. A human framework of our natural environment helps us create architecture and technology. Ancient creations mythologies were not really about superstitious explanations, but about deriving an intelligent design method.



    1. Let There Be Light

    Light is the first step of creation and begins self-awareness. The first mark establishes that artwork has begun and that something is creating the art piece. The Zohar translates Genesis 1:1: "By means of a beginning (it) created Elohim (gods)."1 There is no creator until the creating process begins.

    Unifying Mark

    An art piece begins with a single mark on paper, a single unifying mark of light.

    "The Most Mysterious struck its void, and caused this point to shine... just as the silkworm encloses itself in... all the
    "You cannot conceive of the many without the one. Love is the pursuit of the whole."
    Plato
    creative utterances through the extension of the point of this mysterious brightness."2

    The earth began with a single speck of dust before it joined with other specs. Or you could also consider the beginning to be a block of stone from which a statue is chiseled. Whether additive or subtractive, the process begins with a central reference point that makes us aware of the art work.

    "The world is single and it came into being from the center outwards."3 In Aztec mythology, Ometecuhtli unites everything into one before it all gets divided up in the creation. In the Greek numbering system, the word Monad"one, unity" unites everything before it gets multiplied or divided into other numbers.

    The circle is associated with the beginning of creation. Giovanni di Paolo illustrated the creation with a series of concentric rings. Tree rings expand outward in concentric circles as the tree grows. Waves ripple in circles outward when a stone is thrown in water. But when waves ripple in water we aren't actually seeing matter moving outward. It is a transfer of energy between matter. The initial act unifies the body of water with a motion. The initial act is the unifying mark of creation.



    "The whole creation is to be understood as a synthesis: the imposing of inner order on outer material. And so this synthesis is building from the center out, and organizing that way."4

    Cycles

    Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka said true creation only is achieved when someone does something that has never been done before. Wonderment and pondering lead people to go "beyond strictly practical interests" in their solution to problems. 5 The initial mark must be in a place that has never been moved before, or otherwise the action is just a cyclical repetition of some previous creation and therefore an extension of that creative process. Only original action is creation, and only a leap beyond practical, conventional design can get you there.

    Satellites rotate the earth in a circle. But when you plot a satellite's path on a map it makes a wave. On a flat screen, the satellite's orbit becomes a wave motion. The sin wave is a circle with in another dimentional direction.

    The creation of the universe involves reoccurring events and cycles. Energy is transfered in cycles. The movement of light on a quantum level is both as a particle and a wave. In the tiniest and largest sense, events happen in cycles. In beginning the design process we must consider how cycles occur.

    "You have noticed that everything an Indian does is in a circle, and that is because the Power of the Universe always works in circles, and everything tries to be round.... everything the Power of the World does is done in a circle. The sky is round and I have heard that the earth is round like a ball and so are all the stars. The wind, in its greatest power, whirls. Birds make their nests in circles, for theirs is the same religion as ours. The sun comes forth and goes down again in a circle. The moon does the same, and both are round.

    Even the seasons form a great circle in their changing and always come back again to where they were. The life of man is a circle from childhood to childhood and so it is in everything where power moves. Our teepees were round like the nests of birds and these were always set in a circle..."6
    Black Elk


    The complex cycles in this and the other days of creation are movements that leads to the final structure: "Where [is] the way [where] light dwelleth? And darkness, where [is] the place thereof... that thou shouldest know the paths [to] that house thereof?" (Job 38)

    Axis

    The universe is an organization of rotations. The electron rotates around the proton, the moon around the earth, the earth around the sun- all a balance of rotations. The axis around which something rotates is the "god" of that object. Energy that breaks free from a rotation transfers in a wave into a new form.

    "And I saw other lightnings and the stars of heaven, and I saw how He called them by their names and they hearkened unto Him. And I saw how they are weighed in a righteous balance according to their proportions of light: the width of their spaces and the day of their appearing, and how their revolution producing lightning: and their revolution according to the number of the angels, and they keep faith with each other... some of the stars arise and become lightnings and cannot part with their new form."7

    Energy that breaks free from an axis becomes light. "He that overcometh, the same shall be clothed in leukos (white/brilliant) raiment." (Revelation 3:5)

    Light goes on to produce a new form. "Light and shadow reveal form," said Le Corbusier. The proportions of light, motion, and width of spaces are just as important for architecture and design as they are for quantum physics. They reavel an overall place:

    "Light and illumination are inseperable components of form, space and light. These are the things that create ambiance and feel of a place, as well as the expression of a structure that houses the functions within it and around it. Light renders texture, illuminates surface, and provides sparkle and life."8
    Le Corbusier




    2. Divide The Waters

    Dividing Line

    In order for a point to move, it needs space to move through. The act of drawing a circle divides space into two spaces, an "inside" and "outside".


    Gazing at the horizon, one sees a straight and indefinite line. But jump into a rocket ship and zoom out into outer space and this horizon line becomes a circle. From a point of view outside the circle, the line is a circle. From a point of view inside the circle, the line is straight. At the transition point where these points of views meet, the inside meets the outside and the up meets the down. When making a drawing, after a beginning mark is established the second step is to draw this horizon line.

    In art, a line is either a mark of an object or a separation of spaces. The first creation is a primeval mark and the second creation is a separation of spaces.

    "Where wast thou when I laid the foundations of the earth?... Who hath stretched the line upon it?"
    Job 38:4
    The Hebrew word for firmament in the second creation reqiya means "expanse." The mark of creation has expanded to some width and now has an edge to it. Reqiya comes from the word raqa which means "to spread abroad, stamp, or stretch."9 The edge of an expanded point, a circle or sphere, is a dividing line and gives us distance.

    A Tambatuon folk-story indicates that the oscillation of cycles from the first creation is what causes the dividing line. "One [creation god] lived where the sun rises and one where it sets. They were both males. While the world was still soft, the two [creation gods] met at its centre."10 The gods traveled back and forth trying to make a firm ground between them, a firmament.

    Opposites

    The Hopi said that a male Sun-god created the earth, female, between what is above and what is below, where only water exists. 11 The Ainu similarly believed a male and female god stood on a bridge between heaven and earth. They twice circled the edge of firm land which rose from waters and built a house. 12

    Others say the polarity inherent in an axis of rotation, north and south, causes the second creation. In the Wizard of Oz, the Scarecrow is an inanimate object that comes to life and gains intelligence because it was lifted by Dorothy off its pole. Polar opposites are recognized in all religions' creative powers: Yin/yang, Deva/Asuras, Set/Horus, etc. You can't have the good without the bad, the light without the dark, virtue without vice.

    Male and Female

    Sumerians used the word "man" to refer to the number one. They used "woman" to mean "two". The word "three" meant anything more than man and woman. Other civilizations also used male and female for their basis of numbers. "In Egyptian hieroglyphics, a quantity is indicated by writing the same symbol three times. In classical Chinese, the idea of a crowd was shone by repeating the ideogram that meant man three times. Three trees meant a forest."13

    Most creation stories, starting with the Sumerians, consider the above as male and the below as female. Languages still today treat heaven/sky as male and earth as female, though distinction of sexes is unfortunately disappearing from language.

    "That which is above the heavens is the masculine, and the water which is beneath the earth is the feminine."14
    The male Behemoth represents the highest height and the female Leviathon represents the deepest depth.

    The heart is divided into two atriums and two ventricals.The heart is divided into two because there needs to be a left and right side to the body, or an up and down. The symmetry in the human body which is so frequent around us is a result of both the nature of cycles and polar opposites. The blood pumps over time in a cycle, and it pumps to opposite sides of the body.
    What is important is not if these two sides look similar or different to each other. Symmetry is not the same thing as a mirror image. The opposition we see in nature can look similar or different, but the point is they are on opposite sides and cycle from one side to the other.



    3. Seed Yielding After Its Kind

    If there are two sides to something then it follows logically that there is a space in between. The separating line gains some width and becomes a space itself. Space by definition becomes an object. People don't tend to think of space this way, but space as an object is frequently assumed. It is essential to drawing, for example.

    Wind

    The third creation is frequently associated with wind. Wind is an active force between earth and sky.

    "I saw the four winds which bear the earth and the firmament of heaven. And I saw how the winds stretch out the vaults of heaven, and have their station between heavan and earth: These are the pillars of heaven."15

    But the earth isn't the place where there is "wind". The sun and stars also have wind: "I saw the winds of heaven which turn and bring the circumference of the sun and all the stars to their setting."15"Wind" touches the moving face of the earth, sun, and stars.

    The "wind" is the space between objects that allows the earth to move relative to the sun, the "mediator between them."17

    The space between the earth and sun is vast, but "wind" isn't just physical space. An object's mass and distance in proportion to another object is undecipherable unless they either overlap or there is a third object to reference.



    Overlap

    The vescia piscis shows the creation of an intermediary space by overlapping objects. A circle's edge becomes the center for a second circle and a space between them is formed. This traditionally represents reproduction. The center of two circles meet at each other's edges and produces a third space. The vescia piscis is frequent in religious architecture, such as the Christian "fish" symbol as an explanation of Jesus' immaculate birth.

    Reference Point

    The other way to relate objects is by referencing a third object. The golden proportion can be used to differentiate an object's size and distance by referencing a third object.
    "Rumor doth double, like the voice and the echo, The numbers of the fear'd."
    Shakespeare 16

    With the sizes and distances figured out, reproduction is possible. This is why the golden proportion is so often used in nature for repetition.

    Balance

    Repetition occurs from cycles between the two objects, "a balance, the good in one scale, the evil in the other, and the oscillating tongue of the balance between them."17 Repetition allows balance between the two polar opposites, repetition or cycles through space and time.

    "In the year or as regards time, these three mothers represent heat, cold and temperate climate; the heat from the fire, the cold from the water, and the temperate state from the spiritual air which again is an equilizer between them.

    These three mothers again represent in the microcosm or human form, male and female. The head, the belly, and the chest. The head from the fire, the belly from the water, and the chest from the air lieth between them."
    Kabbalah 17


    The rainbow is an optical illusion of a circle half above ground and half below ground (out of view). The rainbow divides the sky into two spaces (inside and outside the rainbow) and meets the earth, three spaces in all. The rainbow itself is made up of three colors, with many other colors made up of the overlapping of those primary colors. It is therefore a suitable symbol that the earth need no longer be covered in the waters of creation. There is a balanced relationship of spaces.

    Vegetation reproduces in the fourth creation, "after its own kind."

    Parts of a whole

    The appearance of dry land in the fourth creation suggests individuality. Water is the blending together of everything into one great expanse with no distinctive shape or parts. Dry land represents a singular form distinct from other forms. Multiplicity considers a whole by its parts, dry land from the waters. Plants "whose seed is in itself" follow a typology and one can consider each individual plant as part of a whole, its species. One doesn't need to consider the entire species to examine one plant. There is a clear linear method for constructing opposites: the parts make up the whole.

    The Egyptian haker dance, the lua yoga dance, and the maypole of Scandinavia all celebrate the relationship of the individual to the whole of mankind. Candles on the Maypole tree represent the individual topped by a diety, aspiration for unity of the collective fire. According to Alexander Hislop, the dance of women around this tree in celebration of motherhood originates from Babylonian sex rites. 18 Ancient Greece had such dances as well. "You cannot have a single ancient teleten (celebration/mystery) without an archesis or pantomime dance."19 The Song of Solomon in the bible is an antiphonal song and dance between two choruses of maidens celebrating procreation.



    4. Sun, Moon, and Stars



    The Mayan creation story teaches: "Four-fold was the plate of the flower, and Ah Kin Xocbiltun (beared sun-god) was set in the center."20 The Apaches taught that the world was made from "the first four gods."21 There are four winds or four corners of the earth.

    Thee Types Of Light

    The heaven earth was divided into a firmament and then the firmament was divided into three categories of light, for a total of four divisions. If we put the male and female chromosomes together we have four chromosome, three X and one Y. The Y chromosome breaks up the repetition and adds variety to the species, allowing evolution.

    There are three kinds of light- direct light, reflected light, and atmospheric light. Three objects are required for distance to exist. There are three perspective points in linear perspective. The law of threes has religious significance as well as being a design concept. Variety permits rhythm by allowing opposites to be compared or balanced. When something occurs in three and is no longer simply duplicated, it becomes a set pattern.
    The next creation thus introduces variety. There are no longer polar opposites or a balance between them. There is the sun, the moon, and the stars, three totally different types of light sources. These three divisions and the division with darkness makes a total of four divisions- thee types of objects and a negative space.

    Hierarchy

    The stars, sun, planets, and atoms with all their variety can be organized into a hierarchy. Distinct classes of objects exist in their own sphere and rotate relative to each other.

    The tetraktys of Pythogoras shows how harmony exists numerically: numbers a organized into a triangle with four parts on the base tier, three parts on the next tier, two parts on the next tier, and one part on the fourth tier- for a total of ten parts. The musical scale has two tetrachords, an upper group of four and a lower group of four.

    Grid

    With four corners to the earth, we now have four sides with which to map space. Space before this was vector based, a point moving in some direction, but now we have a rectilinear grid. We can now use a map to represent space. We use a geometry to organize objects or abstract ideas in space.

    The position of luminaries correlate with the cycles of nature, "for seasons and for days and for years", representing cycles in the passage of time. We use a grid to map days on a calendar. The grid can make the variety of nature a "sign" for any number of things. Constellations of stars are signs for much more than time. The grid is a universal framework that unifies a hierarchy of objects.



    5. Moving Creature That Hath Life

    Movement exists within various hierarchies of existence. Things stay in a rotation around a higher hierarchy. The rain cycle of water in oceans and sky exemplify how material wants to stay in a cyclical movement within its category.

    Categories of Life

    The ancients recognized that life was dispersed in categories. There are birds in the air, fish in the sea, bears in the forest, and elephants in the plains. The Hindu Brahamana lists a hierarchy of life: "Elephants, horses, Sudras [the lowest caste in Hinduism], and despicable barbarians, lions, tigers, and boars are the middling states caused by the quality of darkness.” 21 The Book of Gates describes the dispersement of animals and humans in categories:

    “Atum (Re in his setting-sun aspect) leans on a staff over four prone figures called the Tired Ones… in all three registers, long processions of deities are engaged in activities connected with measuring, allotting, and apportioning…

    Horus addresses a procession of sixteen figures made up of four groups of four. Each group represents one of the four races of mankind as the Egyptians knew them: Men (Egyptians), Asiatics, Negroes, and Libyans....”
    Egyptian Book of Gates 23


    Unavoidable Cycles
    In ancient Greek plays, the Oceanid nymphs of the sea wept for Prometheus upon his fall. Prometheus had lifted mankind's position by giving them the secret of fire. 24 They represent the rain cycle. Their mother, Tethys, banished the Great Bear constellation to the stream of the Ocean "so that she eternally revolved round the Pole Star. This was to punish her for presuming to make love to Zeus."25
    Those who aspire to create higher states of existence only get mired in a revolution around the pole to which they belong. The waters of chaos pull everything back.

    A relief on the Theban tombe of Kheruef shows water maidens as the river Nile, which provided water substance in its cycle. 26 In Das Rheingold, the daughters of the river Rhine lose their precious gold after the flood of creation recedes: "The Rhine's despairing daughters weeping, told me their woe... the Rhine-gold then seeking revenge he did steal, to him 'tis now a prize beyond price... thus torn from the flood."27

    In Hans Christian Anderson's The Little Mermaid, Ariel is cursed to be the foam of the sea, longingly washing up the sandy shore, after she audaciously attempts to ascend to a different sphere of existence, human.

    If man were meant to fly he would be born with wings. But we can fly using technology. We heat up water to make it steam, and thus using the cyclical change of natural elements we move. We can move ourselves up to the stars, sure, but it is only by using natural reactions after all. There is nothing man can create that nature doesn't provide the means for it.

    Each creation is stuck inside a sphere. Constrained movement inside the sphere tends toward static unity. Actions of opposition create moment reactions that cause rotation around an axis. As objects interact the moment reactions tend toward a spherical movement around the center. Planets around the sun are restrained to a sphere, along with the moon around the earth, and unify toward it.

    This is our place as humans.


    6. Man In Our Own Image



    "Every creeping thing" is made in the sixth creation. We creep in our appointed sphere, yet there is something different about us humans. As we become creators of the environment ourselves, acting rather than reacting, our environment revolves in circulatory relationships around us. We become leaders of our sphere.

    "And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion..."

    This is where the tree of knowledge enters. It introduces three evils to mankind: technology, competition, and consequences. 28 Technology can enhance our discovery and progress or it can slow us down. Competition destroys unity or inspires greatness. Consequences teach the nature of action and reaction or make us lose motivation. With these experiences, mankind develops autonomous action.

    Mankind's great invention, the wheel, is not found in nature. But it is built from a fundamental understand of the universe. Elements revolve around a sphere, and the edge of the wheel, or firmament, interacts with an outside object to give the sphere locomotion. An advanced understanding of natural principles give us direction to produce a new uses. The wheel is a never before seen object invented based on natural laws.

    “All machinery is derived from nature, and is founded on the teaching and instruction of the revolution of the firmament. Let us but consider the connected revolutions of the sun, the moon, and the five planets, without the revolution of which, due to mechanism, we should not have had the alternation of day and night, nor the ripening of fruits.

    Thus, when our ancestors had seen that this was so, they took their models from nature, and by imitating them were led on by divine facts, until they perfected the contrivances which are so servicable in our life. Some things, with a view to greater convenience, they worked out by means of machines and their revolutions, others by means of engines, and so, whatever they found to be useful for investigations, for the arts, and for established practices, they took care to improve step by step on scientific principles.”
    Vitrivius 29


    Our discovery of technology, its influence on our environment, and results of our artifice come from an understanding of the six creations. These six creations represent man's development as a dominant creator, as the architect of the environment. The six creations ultimately lead to our greatest architectural purpose, to teach and to guide the younger generation to become creators themselves. We build in our own image.

    © Benjamin Blankenbehler


    Citations:


  • ^See The Secret Doctrine of the Kabbalah: Recovering the Key to Hebraic Sacred Science by Leonora Leet, Ph.D., Inner Traditions / Bear & Co, 1999, p.221

  • ^Sidney Feshbach in The Zohar: The Book of Light, or Splendor" in The Elemental Dialectic of Light and Darkness: The Passions of the Soul in the Onto-poiesis of Life Volume 38 by Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Kluwer Academic Publishers 1992 p.66

  • ^Stobaeus, Eclog. Physic., 1. 15.7. p. 360

  • ^Clement of Alexandria, quoted in The Temple Experience: Passage to Healing and Holiness by Wendy Ulrich, Cedar Fort 2012

  • ^Poetics of the elements in the human condition: the elemental passions of the soul, Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, World Institute for Advanced Phenomenological Research and Learning, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990 p.36

  • ^Black Elk Speaks, 1931 in Changing of Seasons by Stephan Ray Swimmer, Wordclay, 2008, p.255-256

  • ^Book of Enoch Chapter 43-44, From-The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament R.H. Charles Oxford: The Clarendon Press

  • ^Le Corbusier, as quoted in Essential CG Lighting Techniques by Darren Brooker, Taylor & Francis, 2003 p. 1

  • ^Bible verses about Raqa by Earl L. Henn, www.bibletools.org 2014 by Church of the Great God

  • ^see The Religion of the Tempasuk Dusuns of North Borneo, by I. H. N. Evans, Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 379

  • ^Storytelling Encyclopedia: Historical, Cultural, and Multiethnic Approaches to Oral Traditions Around the World, David Adams Leeming & Marion Sader, Oryx Press, 1997, p.431

  • ^see Fu-so Mimo Bukuro: A Budget of Japanese Notes by C. Pfoundes, Japan Mail, 1875 p.81

  • ^Perfect Figures: The Lore of Numbers and How We Learned to Count, by Bunny Crumpacker, Macmillan, 2007

  • ^Book of Enoch Chapter 54 v 8, From-The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament R.H. Charles Oxford: The Clarendon Press

  • ^Book of Enoch Chapter 18 v 2-4, From-The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament R.H. Charles Oxford: The Clarendon Press

  • ^William Shakespeare from King Henry, quoted in Shakespearean Illuminations: Essays in Honor of Marvin Rosenberg by Jay L. Halio, Hugh M. Richmond, University of Delaware Press, 1998, pp. 215-216

  • ^Kabbalah Sepher Yetzirah ch. 3 v 1,3,4 , W.W. Westcot, Netlancers Inc, 2014

  • ^Alexander Hislop, 1853 quoted in http://www.britam.org/Kings/1Kings18.html The First Book of Kings Chapter Eighteen

  • ^Lucia of Syria, as quoted by Hugh Nibley, as quoted by Sacred Symbols: Finding Meaning in Rites, Rituals and Ordinances By Alonzo L. Gaskill, Cedar Fort

  • ^The Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel ch. x, By Ralph Loveland Roys, Library of Alexandria, 1934

  • ^Native North American Mythology, in Myths and Legends: From Cherokee dances to voodoo trances, By John Pemberton, Canary Press eBooks, 2011

  • ^Max Muller, The sacred books of the East, vol.25, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1886), p. 163

  • ^West, The traveler's key to ancient Egypt: a guide..., 299-300

  • ^see for example "Oceanids" in Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology, By Luke Roman, Monica Romap, Infobase Publishing, 2010, p.341

  • ^"Tethys" in Who's who in Classical Mythology, By Michael Grant, John Hazep, Psychology Press, 2002, p.318

  • ^see Abraham's Temple Drama, Hugh W. Nibley, ch. "The Second Act"

  • ^Richard Wagner in Das Rheingold (The Rhinegold): a music-drama in four scenes. Prelude to the trilogy, "Der Ring des Nibelungen" (The Nibelung's ring), Fred Rullman, 1904, p.21

  • ^see Book of Enoch ch. 69

  • ^Ten Books On Architectre, Vitruvius Pollio Book 10 ch. 1 v. 4, Harvard University Press, 1914

  • Philharmonie Luxembourg, Luxembourg

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    Christian de Portzamparc design the Philharmonic concert hall in Luxembourg. It opened in 2005. A gleaming white rolling floor ripples up and wraps around the piscis-shaped building. The visitor enters through rows of 827 narrow, dense columns like a hypostyle hall. The foyer also hearkens back to classical architecture, with a peristyle form and grand staircases which lead to the concert hall.

    The concert hall has a volume of 20,000 m3 and seats 1,500. It is rectilinear in form and uses an adjustable acoustic reflector above the stage to change acoustic levels.

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    Besucherzentrum Hercules, Kassel Germany

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    Staab Architekten designed the visitor's center for Wilhelmshöhe park in Kassel, Germany. It was completed in 2011.

    At the upper entrance of the park, the linear-shaped building serves as a transition point from the city to the park. Windows punch through the stone facade to provide important view points. The visitor can see the Hercules through a large window, with the exit next to it transitioning to the overall axis of the existing site. The heavy concrete interior compresses on the visitor to give an open effect as it opens into the natural environment.

    Reivew (German)







    Manitoba Hydro Tower, Winnipeg Canada

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    KPMB Architects designed the Manitoba Hydro Headquarters in Winnipeg, Manitoba Canada. It was completed in 2009, and set a new standard for environmental design. It cost $278 million and is 377 ft tall.

    A massive solar chimney dominates the north tower's form and punches through the top. A well-considered environmental system incorporates the heat stack effect and vast water features to vent each floor using this solar chimney. It stays warm in the winter and cool in the summer. Passive heat is gained through southern sun exposure and automatic louver shades. A double exterior skin reduces glare and vites in solar gain and natural breezes.

    A Geothermal temperature control system uses 280 bore holes to exchange heat and keep a consistent temperature. Green roofs give a visual cue to the green strategies. This vast utilization of green strategies along with rational structural systems and material use make this building a notable achievement for modern skyscraper design.

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    Bank Of America Tower, New York

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    COOK FOX Architects designed the Bank of America at One Bryant Park. At a pricey $1 billion, it is the first LEED Platinum skyscraper ever designed.

    The Bank of America tower achieved its green rating using insulated exterior glazing, automatic light dimmers, a greywater system, filtered exhaust vents, and recycled building materials. Slag was used in the building's cement to reduce carbon dioxide emissions during construction. Underfloor plenums allow users in individual spaces to control their own climate within the building. Small green roofs and low-flush urinals also contribute to low waste.

    The building is currently the third tallest in New York City, at 1,200 ft, or 272 ft below the Empire State Building's spire height.

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    Review: "Induction Design" by Makoto Sei Watanabe

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    Makoto Sei Watanabe's Induction Design: A Method for Evolutionary Design discusses the emerging paradigm of evolutionary computation in engineering. In this book, Watanabe expounds on the idea behind his Iidabashi station project.

    Watanabe considers architecture like a seed. The space in the Iidabashi station germinates underground, and then adapts to the environment around it and emerges into the city.

    In his K Museum project in Tokyo, Watanabe asks what simple similarities unite the complex city. A common framework aids in the emergence of a new structure, and it is the architect's goal to discover what these common lines of origin are.

    Discover Pattern Languages

    The computer can help a designer in new ways. There are patterns to be found in complex urban environments. It would take a human a long time to figure out these patterns but a computer can do it very quickly. Like fitting pieces of a huge puzzle, a computer can unravel the grammar and vocabulary that is already evolved in the built environment.

    The purpose is not to generate forms from this discovery, but to aid in solving problems of design.

    With these complex systems of conditions moved to the realm of a computer, the human brain is freed up and can be more imaginative. The computer is limited in that it can not be innovative and come up with something that the programmer hasn't put into it. Only the human brain can do this. But the computer can be an extension of the brain to perform complex problem-solving.

    Seed of Architecture

    Architecture can be more like a seed in the ground. It starts out with the most basic form from which to grow. It tests the conditions of its environs and adapts however it needs to. Then it emerges and constantly changes form as it grows. There are four steps of computer-aided design:

    1. Research
    2. Development of programs
    3. Application
    4. Development of new programs

    In the reactionary development of new programs, Watanabe says the computer needs to consider "soft" factors, which are distinctly human needs like emotional well-being.

    By separating "hard" and "soft" factors, I believe Watanabe is making a huge mistake. This recalls back to the Modernist era of the early 20th century when design was treated like a machine and people believed human emotion could be compartmentalized. Are human needs something you can factor into a computer, paint a face on a robot and people will accept it? And even if you could, are these exigencies to be placed at the end of your design schedule?

    Nature doesn't consider human wellness on a schedule of considerations, yet nature fulfills human needs better than any manmade program. If we truly want to emulate evolutionary induction, we should not put human needs in its own category but to be considered with everything else, every step of the way. Don't be condescending.

    Limitations of Computers

    Software can recognize the possible intentions of a designer and make suggestions. How can all the systems of a building best fit together with certain conditions? How might they relate to the buildings and people around them? It would be particularly useful for software to automatically apply building codes and design standards directly into the design documentation.

    But at what point would a computer become cumbersome? If a designer becomes too reliant on a computer's suggestion the results would be prescriptive carbon copies. A key point of evolution is in the variation of reproduction, mistakes by chance that lead to something different.

    The usefulness of such computer programs ultimately comes down to economics. Computing power is cheap, computer memory is cheap, but paying someone to program a software is not cheap. Is it worth developing softwares that still have such limitations? Well, I think we can agree that we need computer software that is much better developed than anything currently available.


    © Benjamin Blankenbehler

    Review: "Global City Blues" By Daniel Solomon

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    As one of the founders of the Congress for New Urbanism in Chicago, it should be no surprise that Daniel Solomon is a leading advocate for diverse neighborhoods, pedestrian-oriented communities, and physically defined public spaces. He proposes urban places that celebrate history, climate, ecology, and building practice.

    In Global City Blues, Solomon relates experiences that have led to this doctrine, and the paradigms that frame these points of emphasis.

    In his first essay, Solomon takes us through a quick history lesson on architecture. He puts the blame for much of our architectural difficulties today on Modernism. From the beginnings of America, to National Socialsim, to urban renewal projects, we can see how Modernism led architects astray.


    History Ignored

    The protagonists of Modernism gained unsubstantiated optimism. They ignored the past and the basic human experiences. To establish this point, Solomon laments that Walter Gropius made his students “learn to draw or model widely spaced white boxes” rather than study about architectural history.

    Joseph Eichler “was an aesthetic missionary, and a successful one, but his noble accomplishment was part of something far from noble- the set of post-war policies that built our sprawling, isolated suburbs and wrought ruthless damage on our cities and city-regions.”

    While Modernists smugly produced their faulty architecture, Solomon points out that there are other economies that have developed and may be used as a metaphor for our present-day crisis. One such example is the “culture of food” in America. The “foodies” successfully changed the American culture in order to establish nutritious, fresh, imaginative food for the mass population that was rooted in local traditions and crops.

    Solomon, referencing back to these some-what successful food systems in America, suggests that agriculture should play a role in the city. Patches of farms and wilderness should be seen daily by the city dweller.

    Le Corbusier and Rem Koolhas went so far as to ignore their own landscape- the history and human influence. Gemeindebauen is a forgotten practice. The post-war Berkeley campus is one such example of “a huge reification of forgetfulness, a drunken stupor frozen in concrete.” How a mighty establishment has fallen!



    It is ironic that the most dysfunctional, ugliest, and most despised buildings were built in an age of great optimism, confidence, and prosperity, the era following World War II. Solomon claims this is because the Modernists forgot important lessons in their rush forward their new technologies. He points to Eastern Europeans in the late twentieth century who suddenly forgot how to bake bread.

    Human Experience Ignored

    The “evil monster” of Modernism severely damaged the human experience by ignoring the past and insulating people from their environment. People sit in buildings without a sense of the weather outside or the time of day indicated by the sun movement. They are cut off from natural weather cycles, from social interaction, and from visual cues for the time of day. The nature of space inside buildings and the connective urban fabric around buildings are in dire need of repair.

    Urbanism gunks up the system with a “tribunal of grand inquisitors” that prevent real home-grown architectural experiences with complex marketing schemes, fanatical code enforcement, and misguided cost control. Their world is lit by grids of fluorescent lights and the air smells of carpet glue. As well as obsessing over cheap and machine-like architecture, Modernists ignore anything outside their own landscape.

    Solomon emphasizes the need for architecture and city designers to rediscover human needs in order to fulfill the human experience. The first thing that needs to happen is for us to get away from the “non-history” involved in our plastic communities. New projects must not destroy or trod over already established and deeply rooted systems. Stanford University was able to establish new buildings that contribute rather than dominating the overall system. Stanford dedicated 9% of their building budgets to the assessment of existing structures. Adequate space between buildings and sensitivity to existing systems and buildings has resulted in a beautiful campus that is successful in many ways.



    In order to keep buildings and towns vital to the human experience, rather than gashes in the landscape, Solomon lists other specific remedies. Windows allow the occupants to relate to the weather and time of day. Windows should be able to be opened in order to connect people to that weather quite literally, and glass should be very transparent so they can clearly see their surroundings. Floor plans should not be mazes of lights and carpet, but easily navigatable with places to walk which are clearly connected to the outside. The environment, inside as well as outside, needs to provide unpredictable encounters with people. The air should be real, much of the light should be real, and the materials should be real. All materials should feel like their texture and be assembled like they look.

    The history and context of the town and section of the town the people live in should be made evident and relevant. The human experience and sense of place has much to do with local cultural and local agricultural fabric.

    Method Rather Than Result

    Solomon relates a shocking presentation by a 1920’s German modernist Konrad Wachsman. After presenting a brilliant and expensive machine that precisely detects the location of any two points inside a cube, maneuvering the cube so that the points could be anywhere inside, he was asked what the point of this contraption was.

    Wachsman answered, “Before there was Mozart, there was the harpsichord.” Solomon says Wachsman’s lecture was boring, audacious, and “just plain nuts.” Students left in droves and the dedicated were left shaking their heads. Modernism raises the banner of newness and technology, but it is far from economical and effective as a means of architecture and design.

    New Urbanism

    Solomon presents the land-use history of his hometown San Fransisco as the first counterrevolutionary against Modernism. The planners and engineers who laid out the street grids and circulation systems were often at odds with the people of the city. The public finally revolted against a proposed highway system, and other cities like Portland followed. San Francisco may be a traffic mess today, but the urban fabric is saved from that destroying element.

    Urban sprawl and disconnected neighborhoods are bad results of freeways. Solomon discusses the HOPE-VI program that would clear out crappy low-income housing and build permanent communities designed for the human experience. Predictably, Solomon also extols New Urbanism and its success stories. While some New Urbanists “just don’t get it” and contribute further to urban sprawl and disconnected communities, some are able to connect planning with transportation departments.

    The usual points of New Urbanism, including deterrence of the automobile and implementing of human scale and history, is the moral of Solomon’s essays. He builds this rhetoric on a foundation of history that blames Modernism for the ills of our society and environment. He does this effectively with significant history lessons and highly opinionated observations of our current society. But most importantly, Solomon inspires the reader with a sense of optimism with his examples of success and plans that will surely be successful. This inspiration is ironic considering the title is “Global City Blues.” He is bewildered by those who still just can’t their acts together.

    By laying out specific and small points that greatly enhance architecture, the reader is left with the same feeling of bewilderment. The politics, red-tape, and disconnect between governmental agencies is probably presented as the greatest hurdle. Architecture is just one field effected by New Urbanism. Overall it makes daily life more user-oriented and experiential.

    © Benjamin Blankenbehler
    Originally written for the University of Idaho, 2007

  • ^Quotes from Global City Blues by Daniel Solomon, Island Press, 2006
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